Roman Legion Camp at Masada
How Long Until the Legion
Captured Masada?
This painting depicts a horrifying scene, the remains of the encampment of the Roman soldiers who laid siege to the Jewish Zealots who had held up at Masada, which was just above on the plateau.
The Jewish Zealots held out for three long years after the Temple was destroyed and Jerusalem was brought down to rubble and burned to ashes. Masada was the last fortress of the Jews and every other Jewish stronghold was captured. It was just a matter of time, so the Jewish Zealots committed suicide, after deciding that death was better for them than capture by the Romans.This Roman Legionary encampment which can be seen today is a testimony in Biblical Archaeology, it reveals the encampment of the ones who destroyed Jerusalem in 70 AD. The destruction of Jerusalem was dreadfully foreseen and predicted by Jesus.
"As the flames shot up, a cry, as poignant as the tragedy, arose from the Jews, who flock to the rescue," - Josephus
he also added:
"lost to all thought of self-preservation, all husbanding of
strength, now that the object of all their past vigilance was
vanishing." - Josephus
The Legions: There were 25 legions in 23 AD (Tacitus Annals 4, 5), which had been increased to 30 at the time of the reign of Marcus Aurelius, 160-180 AD (CIL, VI, 3492 a-b) and to 33 under Septimius Severus (Dio Cassius, iv. 23-24). Each legion was made up, ordinarily, of 6,000 men, who were divided into 10 cohorts, each cohort containing 3 maniples, and each maniple in turn 2 centuries. The legatus Augustus pro praetore, or governor of each imperial province, was chief commander of all the troops within the province. An officer of senatorial rank known as legatus Augusti legionis was entrusted with the command of each legion, together with the bodies of auxilia which were associated with it. Besides, there were six tribuni militum, officers of equestrian rank (usually sons of senators who had not yet held the quaestorship) in each legion. The centurions who commanded the centuries belonged to the plebeian class. Between the rank of common soldier and centurion there were a large number of subalterns, called principales, who correspond roughly to the non-commissioned officers and men detailed from the ranks for special duties in modern armies. [ROMAN ARMY - ISBE]
"Then said Jesus unto him, Put up again thy sword into his place: for all they that take the sword shall perish with the sword. Thinkest thou that I cannot now pray to my Father, and he shall presently give me more than twelve legions of angels?" - Matthew 26:52-53
Roman Army Encampment
PLAN OF A ROMAN MILITARY CAMP. A. Decumanian gate.—B. Praetorian gate.—C. and D. Principal side gates.—E. F. Via Quintana traversing the camp.—I. and II. Tents of the legions.—I. The Praetorium.—2. The Qurestorium.— 3. The Forum.—4 and 5. Tents of Roman volunteers.— 6 and 7. Tents of the main body and of allies. —8. Foreign auxiliaries.—9. Tents of the twelve military tribunes.
THE ROMAN ARMY.--The Roman army was divided into legions, the number of which varied considerably (from 3000 to 6000), each under six tribuni ("chief captains,") Acts 21:31 who commanded by turns. The legion was subdivided into ten cohorts ("band,") Ac 10:1 the cohort into three maniples, and the maniple into two centuries, containing originally 100 men, as the name implies, but subsequently from 50 to 100 men, according to the strength of the legion. There were thus 60 centuries in a legion, each under the command of a centurion. Ac 10:1,22; Mt 8:5; 27:54 In addition to the legionary cohorts, independent cohorts of volunteers served under the Roman standards. One of these cohorts was named the Italian, Ac 10:1 as consisting of volunteers from Italy. The headquarters of the Roman forces in Judea were at Caesarea. [Smith's]
LEGIO. A Roman legion ; two of which constituted a consular army. It consisted of about five or six thousand (for the complement was not always the same) heavy-armed foot soldiers (legionarii) drawn from the Roman citizens ; augmented by a body of auxiliaries at least equal in number, and a detachment of cavalry, three hundred strong, which was always joined with it ; so that the effective force of a legion in the field is usually reckoned at ten thousand men at the least. Varro. Liv. Tac. Veget. [Roman Antiquities]
LEGIONA'RII. Legionary soldiers ; i.e. the body of five or six thousand heavy-armed ~ men, who formed the contingent furnished out of the Roman Citizens to each legion, the rest of its entire complement being made up by auxiliaries and cavalry. (Cic. Fam. x. 32. Caes. B.G. I. 42.) The annexed figure, from the column of Trajan, probably represents a legionary of the Imperial age ; he wears a close helmet, a sword suspended by a shoulder belt (balteus), and hanging on the right side, has an oblong square shield (scutum), a cuirass formed of flexible plates of metal (see Lorica, No. 7.), and military shoes (caligae). On the arches of Trajan and Septimius Severis, and the Columns of Trajan and Antoninus, numerous bodies of men are represented with the same accoutrements, and engaged in all the various duties which the soldiers of a legion were expected to perform. [Roman Antiquities]
Legionaries were infantry soldiers who were the major armed forces of the Roman army. They were recruited from Roman citizens, usually as young as 19 but many as early as 14 years old. 4 foot 11 inches was the minimum height. Augustus had 25 legions of approximately 6,000 soldiers each. A legion was formed of 10 Cohorts (540 men in each Cohort). Each Cohort was subdivided into 6 Centuries (90 men formed a Century), and each legion had a wing of 120 cavalry. This discovery of a wall relief depicting ancient Roman Legionaries is important in the study of Biblical archaeology.
Roman Legionary Soldier
Legionary troopers. Legiottarii equites. Legionary troopers ; i.e. the soldiers comprised in a detachment of three hundred horse, who were always joined with a Roman Legion. (Liv. xxv. 21. xxxv. 5. Veg. Mil. ii. 2.) Their defensive armour appears to have been the same as that of the infantry, at least during the Imperial epoch, as shown by the annexed figure, from the Column of Antoninus. [Roman Antiquities]
Roman Legionary Trooper
SCU'TUM . The large oblong shield generally adopted by the Roman infantry instead of the round buckler (clipius), at the period when the military ceased to serve without pay. It was about 4 feet long by 2 1/2 wide; formed out of boards, like a door firmly joined together and covered over with coarse cloth, under an outer coating of raw hide, attached and strengthened round the edges by a metal rim. The men of each legion had their shields painted of a different colour, and charged with distinctive symbols, as is exhibited by the illustration representing three scuta, as they stand upon the ground in the column of Trajan, distinguished severally by the image of a thunderbolt, of a wreath, and the same bolt with a pair of wings. Liv. i. 43. viii. 8. Plin. H. N. xvi. 77. Virg. y^n. viii. 662. Veg. Mil. ii. 18. Polyb. ii. 30. 3- vi. 23. 2. [Rich]
Roman Legionary Shields
Legionary Shields from the Column
of Trajan
Signa militaria. Military standards or ensigns, including, in reality, the eagle (aquila), which was the general ensign of the entire legion; but more commonly used with reference to the different standards belonging to each separate maniple and cohort, as distinct from the eagle. Cat. ii. 6. Tac. Hist. 11. 29. Tac. Ann. i. 18.) The illustration, a medal, shows the eagle between two standards of cohorts ; the name of each ensign is enumerated in the Classed Index, and an example given under its own denomination. [Rich]
Roman Eagle Ensign of the Entire Legion
SPECULA'TORES. Lookers-out: a term applied generally to any persons who acted the part of scouts or spies (Liv. xxii. 33. Sail. Jug. 114.); but specially to a small number of men attached to each Roman legion (Tac. Hist. i. 25. Hirt. B. Hisp. 13. Inscript. ap. Grut. 520. 5. Appian. B. C. v. 132.), whose duty it was to collect information respecting the numbers and motions of the enemy, and to act as aides-de-camp to the general in transmitting his orders to the different divisions of the army. Hirt. B. Afr. 31. [Rich]
Roman Legionary Scout (Speculatores)
TRIA'RII. A body of heavy-armed infantry soldiers, who formed the third division of a Roman legion. They were originally distinguished by the name of Pilani from the heavy javelin (pilum) with which they were equipped ; but when that weapon was also distributed to the other two divisions, comprising the Hastati and the Principes, the old name was changed for that of Triarii, either on account of the position they occupied in the order of battle, viz. the third line, which is the reason assigned by Livy, or because their corps consisted of picked men selected from each of the three heavy-armed classes, which is the reason assigned by Niebuhr. Their armour consisted of a bronze helmet, with a high crest, a cuirass, large shield, a short and pointed sword, and the heavy javelin ox pilum ; but no authentic monument representing these details with sufficient precision is known to exist. (Varro, L. L. v. 89. Liv. viii. 8.) Towards the latter end of the republic, the original distinction between the men styled respectively Hastati, Principes, and Triarii was abandoned, in consequence of the new system adopted of drawing up the army by lines in cohorts. [Rich]
Military Tribune. Tribuni militares or militum - Military tribunes; officers in the Roman army who held a rank below that of the legati, but superior to that of the centuriones. (Varro, L. L. v. 81. Cic. Cluent. 36.) The numbers of these officers appointed to each legion varied at different periods, as the number of men composing its strength was increased; but they enjoyed an important command and high rank, being often represented on the columns and arches in the immediate staff of the imperator, and wearing the same accoutrements with himself and the legatus, as exhibited by the annexed group, from the Column of Trajan, which shows the emperor in front, a legatus immediately behind him, and the tribune in the rear. [Rich]
Roman Military Tribunes
TRIUM'PHUS. A triumph, or grand military procession, in which a victorious general and his troops entered the city after the successful termination of an important war, commencing at the porta triumphalis, then passing through the Velabrum and Circus Maximus, along the Via Sacra and Forum up to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the Capitoline hill. It was headed by the entire body of the senate, who went out to meet the troops and conduct them into the city. Next followed the brass band, playing upon trumpets and horns; they preceded a file of carriages laden with the spoils taken from the enemy, intermixed with portable stages, on which articles most remarkable for value or beauty of workmanship were prominently displayed to attract the observation of the public, whilst the quantity and value of the booty and the names of the conquered provinces were placarded upon boards affixed to tall poles, and carried by the side of the objects described upon them. Then came a band of pipers (Tibicines) in advance of the victim intended for sacrifice - a white bull decorated with fillets of wool round the head, and a broad band of richly-dyed cloth across its back. Behind the victim walked a body of priests and their attendants with the sacrificial implements. After them the arms, standards, and other insignia of the conquered nations were displayed, immediately in advance of the princes, leaders, and their kindred taken captives in the war, followed by the entire number of ordinary prisoners in fetters. Next came the lictors of the general, in their civic costume, the toga, and with their brows and fasces wreathed with laurel; they formed a body immediately in advance of the triumphant general, who was dressed in his triumphalia, and standing in a circular car drawn by four horses. On his brow he wore a wreath of laurel, and behind him in the car stood a public servant, who held over his head a massive crown of gold studded with jewels . His youngest children were placed in the car with him; whilst those who had attained to manhood rode on horseback beside the car, or upon the horses which drew it. Behind the general marched the superior officers, the Legati, Tribuni, and the Equites, all on horseback; and the procession was finally closed by the entire body of the legions, carrying branches of laurel in their hands, and having chaplets of the same shrub round their heads, alternately singing songs in praise of their general, and cutting jokes at his expense. During the course of the route the procession passed under a temporary arch designed for the purpose and erected across the street, which in early times was taken down after the fete; but latterly it was replaced by a permanent structure of marble or stone. [Roman Antiquities]
TUB'A. A wind instrument made of bronze, with a funnel or bell-shaped mouth, and straight tube (Ov. Met. 1. 98. Juv. ii. 118. Veg. Mil. iii. 5.), like our trumpet, giving out very loud and interrupted notes ( fractos sonitus, Virg. Georg. iv. 72. terrihdi sonitu tarataiitara dixit. Ennius ap. Prise, viii. 842.). The example is from the arch of Titus. [Rich]
Roman Tuba
TUB'ICEN. A trumpeter who blows the tuba (Varro, Z. L. v. 91. Ov. Met. iii. 705.), as exhibited by the annexed figure, from a bas-relief on the arch of Constantine. Trumpeters were always included in the brass band of the army (Liv. ii. 64.) ; amongst the musicians who performed at religious ceremonies (Varro, L. L. V. 117. ) ; and at funeral solemnities (Pers. iii. 103.) ; whence the expression ad titbicines mittere (Pet. Sat. I2g. 7.) means to prepare for death. [Rich]
Roman Trumpeter Blowing the Tuba
TROPAE'UM. A trophy; a monument erected on the spot where a victory had been obtained; or, in the case of naval warfare, upon the nearest point of land to where the action had taken place. It was originally formed with the trunk of a tree, upon which and its branches some arms belonging to the defeated party were suspended, as in the illustration, from an Imperial coin ; but latterly trophies were designed as elaborate works of art, in marble or bronze, and erected apart from the battle-field, as permanent mementoes of the contest. Cic. Inv. ii. 23. Virg. ^-En. xi. 5—II. Suet. Cal. 45. Claud, i. [Rich]
Roman Trophy
FER'CULUM. A sort of portable platform borne by a number of men upon their shoulders, in solemn processions and other pageants, upon which any object of attraction was placed in order that it might be exposed to the general gaze from an elevated position; as, for example, the images of the gods at the Circensian procession (Suet. Jul. 76. Compare Cic. Off. i. 36. ) ; the spoils of conquered nations at a triumph (Suet. Jul. 37.) ; and even the captives themselves, when of sufficient consequence, were subjected to this cruel exposure. (Senec. Here. Oet. no.) The illustration, from a bas-relief on the Arch of Titus, represents eight Roman soldiers at the triumph of that emperor, after the conquest of Jerusalem, carrying the spoils of the temple, the "table of gold" (I Kings vii. 48.) and trumpets on a ferculum; another basrelief on the same arch represents a group transporting the golden candlestick in the same manner. [Rich]
8 Roman Soldiers Carrying Spoils from
Jerusalem on a Ferculum (Arch of Titus)
TIT'ULUS. A placard or board attached to a long pole, and carried by the soldiery in triumphal processions, to record the number of prisoners, amount of booty, and names of the towns or countries captured; all which details were inscribed upon it in large characters, for the information of the populace. (Ov. Trist. iv. 2. 20.) The illustration represents one of the boards carried at the triumph of the Emperor Titus, after the conquest of Jerusalem, from the arch erected in commemoration of that event. [Rich]
Roman Soldier Carrying the Titulus (Arch
of Titus)
DORSUA'LIA. A broad band, made of richly dyed cloth, or embroidered silk, which was laid across the backs of horses upon state occasions, as in the example, from the triumphal procession of Constantine; or upon cattle conducted to the sacrifice, of which the Arch of Titus at Rome affords several specimens. Trebell. Gallien. 8. [Roman Antiquities]
Roman Procession Horse Bearing the
Dorsualia Band
LICTOR. A lictor; a public officer attached to the service of certain Roman magistrates, whom he preceded whenever they went abroad ; viz. twenty-four for a dictator, twelve for a consul, decemvir, or tribune with military power; six for a praetor, and one for a Vestal virgin. He carried the fasces elevated on his left shoulder, and a rod (vir'ga) in the right hand, with which he removed any persons obstructing the way, and knocked at the doors of those whom the magistrate visited. In the city he wore the toga, and carried the fasces without the axe (sectiris), as exhibited by the annexed figure from a bas-relief of the Vatican; but out of Rome he wore the military cloak (sagum or paludamentum),and had the axe attached to his fasces. [Roman Antiquities]
Roman Lictor
Fasces. Fasces praeferre and submiittere. The lictor walked before the magistrate to whose service he was attached with a rod (virga) in his right hand, and the fasces on his left shoulder, as shown by the annexed figure, from a bas-relief in the Museum of Verona. This is expressed by the phrase fasces praferre; but if a magistrate of inferior rank met a superior, the lictor removed the fasces from his shoulder, and lowered them, as a mark of respect, till the great man had passed, as our soldiers ground arms in the presence of great personages. This is expressed by the phrase fasces submittere. [Roman Antiquities]
Roman Lictor Carrying the Fasces
Triumphant Chariot. Currus triumphalis. A triumphal car, in which the Roman general was carried at his triumph. This was not open at the back like the ordinary currus, but was completely circular, and closed all round (Zonar. vi. 21.), as shown by the annexed engraving, from a medal of Vespasian, which shows the persons in it. Its panels were also decorated with carvings in ivory, which are apparent in the present example, whence it is designated as the ivory car (currus ebirneus, Pedo Albin. El. i. 333.). [Roman Antiquities]
Roman Triumphant Chariot (Currus) Drawn
by 4 Horses
CORO'NA. A wreath., garland, or chaplet, made of real or artificial flowers, leaves, &c., worn as an ornament upon the head; but not as a crown in our sense of the word, i. e. as an emblem of royalty; for amongst the ancients, a diadem (diadema) occupied the place of the modern crown. Of these there were a great many varieties, distinguished by the different materials or the designs in which they were made, and chiefly employed as rewards for public virtue, or ornaments for festive occasions. Under these two divisions, the principal corona; are enumerated in the following paragraphs.
Corona triumphalis. The triumphal crown; of which there were three several kinds. (1.) A wreath of laurel leaves without the berries (Aul. Cell. V. 6. I. Plin. H. N. XV. 39.), worn by the general during his triumph in the manner shown by the annexed bust of Antoninus, from an engraved gem. This being esteemed the most honourable of the three, was expressly designated laurea insignis. (Liv. vii. 13.) (2.) A crown of gold made in imitation of laurel leaves, which was held over the head of the general during the triumph by a public officer {servus publicus, "Juv. x. 41.) appointed for the purpose, and in the manner shown by the illustration. from a bas-relief on the Arch of Titus, representing that emperor in his triumphal car at the procession for the conquest of Jerusalem, in which a winged figure of Victory poetically performs the part of the public officer. {3.) A crown of gold, and of considerable value, but merely sent as a present to the general who had obtained a triumph (Plut. Paul. Aimil. 34), from the different provinces, whence it is expressly called provincialis. Tertull. Coron. Mil. 13. [Rich]
Roman Triumphant Wearing the Corona
(Laurel Crown) - Arch of Titus
VEXILLARIUS. The soldier who carried the vexillum, or colours of his regiment (Liv. viii. 8. Tac. Htst. I. 41.); more especially, though not exclusively descriptive of the cavalry troops, who used no other ensign. The illustration is copied from the Column of Antoninus. 2. Under the Empire, the name of Vexillarii was given to a distinct body of soldiers, supposed to have been composed of veterans, who were released from the military oath and regular service, but kept embodied under a separate flag (vexillum), to render assistance to the army if required, guard the frontiers, and garrison recently conquered provinces; a certain number of these supernumeraries being attached to each legion. Tac. Hist. ii. 83. lb. 100. Compare Ann. i. 36. [Rich]
Roman Flag Bearer (vexillarius)
VEXILLUM. A flag; consisting of a square piece of cloth fixed on a frame or cross-tree (Tertull. Apol. 16.) ; as contradistinguished from the standard (signum), which was simply a pole, with the image of an eagle, horse, or some other device, on the top of it. The flag was always the proper and only ensign of the Roman cavalry. In ver>- early times it was aiso used by the infantry (Liv. viii. 8. ) ; but it was afterwards employed for a distinctive banner of the allied troops, as the standard was for the legions ; whence the two are frequently enumerated together when it is intended to comprise the Roman legions and the allies. (Liv. xxxix. 20. Sn&t. Nero, 13. Vitell. 11.) The illustration represents the cross-tree upon which the flag was extended, from an original of bronze, with a miniature drawing of the flag and pole by its side. [Rich]
Roman Flag (vexillum)
Roman Legion Commander and
Soldiers
Roman Army Crossing Bridge of
Boats (Trajan's Column)
Roman Centurion Painted
Illustration
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Heart Message
It's not Easy to Shake a Centurion
Imagine the fear inspired by a detachment of Roman legionnaires marching into your village. The ground rumbles beneath one hundred soldiers armed with sword, shield and armor as they move down your street. The entire unit moving as one. Not one solider thinking of his own choices but moving as a single entity. Along side riding on a proud steed is the centurion. Distinguished in attire and character. He is one who worked his way up through the ranks by merit into a position of trusted authority. Seasoned by battle and enforcing law in hundreds of villages throughout the Empire his eyes are filled with a deep knowing. He has a charge and a duty to carry out and is little moved by the opinion of any human spirit. One Centurion on what would have been an ordinary day of keeping order was witness to the day that shook the city and the world. Perhaps he had heard of Jesus of Nazareth or even seen the crowds that followed him. He may have even been an acquaintance of the centurion who's servant was healed by Christ. (Matt 8) He certainly saw the huge crowds watching this crucifixion. He saw some crying and others mocking. He saw the sign over his head, "This is Jesus. The King of the Jews" He even heard Christ promise one of the other crucified thieves next to him the promise of paradise! There must have been a lot of thinking and considering behind his steely-eyed gaze as he stood watch with his soldiers over this eerie event. What made this Jesus so special? Another rabble-rouser Jewish extremist? But somehow he doesn't fit the profile. And why do the priests and religionists hate him so much? Why are they so threatened? In the midst of thought suddenly Jesus clears his throat and yells, "It is finished!" and gives up his spirit as if by choice and purpose. (John 19:30) Then a violent earthquake! Everything is shaking! The loud and dramatic waves of earth moving power is rumbling through every soul causing terror, screams near and far... the panic of people running, horses bucking, birds fleeing and rocks falling. The centurion makes an authoritative decision. "Surely he
was the Son of God!" A statement that his men and others
must have heard, only adding to the sense of foreboding awe.
This very day both the rocks and history split into two and
God began to present the question and choice to every human:
"But what about you... Who do you say that I am?" (Matt.
16:15)
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Legion. The largest division of the Roman army, of which it was, in order and armament, the miniature; 6,000 foot, with a body of horse. Matthew 26:53, "thinkest thou that I cannot now pray to My Father, and He shall presently give Me more than twelve legions of angels," against this band from the Roman "legion"; not merely My twelve apostles, but twelve "legions," and these "angels?" (compare 2 Kings 6:17; Daniel 7:10.) In Mark 5:9 the demon-possessed says, "my name is legion, for we are many," "because many demons (Greek) were entered into him." [Fausset's]
Legion. The chief subdivision of the Roman army, containing about 6000 infantry, with a contingent of cavalry. The term does not occur in the Bible in its primary sense, but appears to have been adopted in order to express any large number, with the accessory ideas of order and subordination. Mt 26:53; Mr 5:9 [Smith's]
Legion. A regiment of the Roman army, the number of men
composing which differed at different times. It originally consisted
of three thousand men, but in
the time of Christ consisted of six thousand, exclusive of horsemen,
who were in number a tenth of the foot-men. The word is used (Matt.
26:53; Mark
5:9) to express simply a great multitude. [Easton's]
The Legions: There were 25 legions in 23 AD (Tacitus Annals 4, 5), which had been increased to 30 at the time of the reign of Marcus Aurelius, 160-180 AD (CIL, VI, 3492 a-b) and to 33 under Septimius Severus (Dio Cassius, iv. 23-24). Each legion was made up, ordinarily, of 6,000 men, who were divided into 10 cohorts, each cohort containing 3 maniples, and each maniple in turn 2 centuries. The legatus Augustus pro praetore, or governor of each imperial province, was chief commander of all the troops within the province. An officer of senatorial rank known as legatus Augusti legionis was entrusted with the command of each legion, together with the bodies of auxilia which were associated with it. Besides, there were six tribuni militum, officers of equestrian rank (usually sons of senators who had not yet held the quaestorship) in each legion. The centurions who commanded the centuries belonged to the plebeian class. Between the rank of common soldier and centurion there were a large number of subalterns, called principales, who correspond roughly to the non-commissioned officers and men detailed from the ranks for special duties in modern armies. [ISBE]
THE ROMAN ARMY.--The Roman army was divided into legions, the number of which varied considerably (from 3000 to 6000), each under six tribuni ("chief captains,") Acts 21:31 who commanded by turns. The legion was subdivided into ten cohorts ("band,") Ac 10:1 the cohort into three maniples, and the maniple into two centuries, containing originally 100 men, as the name implies, but subsequently from 50 to 100 men, according to the strength of the legion. There were thus 60 centuries in a legion, each under the command of a centurion. Ac 10:1,22; Mt 8:5; 27:54 In addition to the legionary cohorts, independent cohorts of volunteers served under the Roman standards. One of these cohorts was named the Italian, Ac 10:1 as consisting of volunteers from Italy. The headquarters of the Roman forces in Judea were at Caesarea. [Smith's]
THE ROMAN ARMY
ar'-mi, ro'-man; The treatment of this subject will be confined to
(I) a brief description of the organization of the army, and (II) a
consideration of the allusions to the Roman military establishment
in the New Testament.
I. Organization.
There were originally no standing forces, but the citizens performed
military service like any other civic duty when summoned by the
magistrates. The gradual development of a military profession and
standing army culminated in the admission of the poorest class to
the ranks by Marius (about 107 BC). Henceforth the Roman army was
made up of a body of men whose character was essentially that of
mercenaries, and whose term of continuous service varied in
different divisions from 16 to 26 years.
The forces which composed the Roman army under the Empire may be
divided into the following five groups: (1) the imperial guard and
garrison of the capital, (2) the legions, (3) the auxilia, (4) the
numeri, (5) the fleet. We shall discuss their organization in the
order mentioned.
1. The Imperial Guard:
The imperial guard consisted of the cohortes praetoriae, which
together with the cohortes urbanae and vigiles made up the garrison
of Rome. In the military system as established by Augustus there
were nine cohorts of the praetorian guard, three of the urban
troops, and seven of the vigiles. Each cohort numbered 1,000 men,
and was commanded by a tribune of equestrian rank. The praetorian
prefects (praefecti praetorii), of whom there were usually two, were
commanders of the entire garrison of the capital, and stood at the
highest point of distinction and authority in the equestrian career.
2. The Legions:
There were 25 legions in 23 AD (Tacitus Annals 4, 5), which had been
increased to 30 at the time of the reign of Marcus Aurelius, 160-180
AD (CIL, VI, 3492 a-b) and to 33 under Septimius Severus (Dio
Cassius, iv. 23-24). Each legion was made up, ordinarily, of 6,000
men, who were divided into 10 cohorts, each cohort containing 3
maniples, and each maniple in turn 2 centuries.
The legatus Augustus pro praetore, or governor of each imperial
province, was chief commander of all the troops within the province.
An officer of senatorial rank known as legatus Augusti legionis was
entrusted with the command of each legion, together with the bodies
of auxilia which were associated with it. Besides, there were six
tribuni militum, officers of equestrian rank (usually sons of
senators who had not yet held the quaestorship) in each legion. The
centurions who commanded the centuries belonged to the plebeian
class. Between the rank of common soldier and centurion there were a
large number of subalterns, called principales, who correspond
roughly to the non-commissioned officers and men detailed from the
ranks for special duties in modern armies.
3. The "Auxilia":
The auxilia were organized as infantry in cohortes, as cavalry in
alae, or as mixed bodies, cohortes equitatae. Some of these
divisions contained approximately 1,000 men (cohortes or alae
miliariae), but the greater number about 500 (cohortes or alae
quingenariae). They were commanded by tribuni and praefecti of
equestrian rank. The importance of the auxilia consisted originally
in the diversity of their equipment and manner of fighting, since
each group adhered to the customs of the nation in whose midst it
had been recruited. But with the gradual Romanization of the Empire
they were assimilated more and more to the character of the
legionaries.
4. The "Numeri":
The numeri developed out of the provincial militia and began to
appear in the 2nd century AD. They maintained their local manner of
warfare. Some were bodies of infantry, others of cavalry, and they
varied in strength from 300 to 90 (Mommsen, Hermes, XIX, 219 f, and
XXII, 547 f). Their commanders were praepositi, praefecti or tribuni,
all men of equestrian rank.
5. The Fleet:
The fleet was under the command of prefects (praefecti classis), who
took rank among the highest officials of the equestrian class. The
principal naval stations were at Misenum and Ravenna.
6. Defensive Arrangements:
Augustus established the northern boundary of the Empire at the
Rhine and at the Danube, throughout the greater part of its course,
and bequeathed to his successors the advice that they should not
extend their sovereignty beyond the limits which he had set (Tacitus
Annals i.11; Agricola 13); and although this policy was departed
from in many instances, such as the annexation of Thrace,
Cappadocia, Mauretania, Britain, and Dacia, not to mention the more
ephemeral acquisitions of Trajan, yet the military system of the
Empire was arranged primarily with the view of providing for the
defense of the provinces and not for carrying on aggressive warfare
on a large scale. Nearly all the forces, with the exception of the
imperial guard, were distributed among the provinces on the border
of the Empire, and the essential feature of the disposition of the
troops in these provinces was the permanent fortress in which each
unit was stationed. The combination of large camps for the legions
with a series of smaller forts for the alae, cohorts, and numeri is
the characteristic arrangement on all the frontiers. The immediate
protection of the frontier was regularly entrusted to the auxiliary
troops, while the legions were usually stationed some distance to
the rear of the actual boundary. Thus the army as a whole was so
scattered that it was a difficult undertaking to assemble sufficient
forces for carrying out any considerable project of foreign
conquest, or even to cope at once with a serious invasion, yet the
system was generally satisfactory in view of the conditions which
prevailed, and secured for the millions of subjects of the Roman
Empire the longest period of undisturbed tranquillity known to
European history.
7. Recruiting System:
In accordance with the arrangements of Augustus, the cohortes
praetoriae and cohortes urbanae were recruited from Latium, Etruria,
Umbria, and the older Roman colonies (Tacitus Annals 4, 5), the
legions from the remaining portions of Italy, and the auxilia from
the subject communities of the Empire (Seeck, Rheinisches Museum,
XLVIII, 616).
But in course of time the natives of Italy disappeared, first from
the legions, and later from the garrison of the capital. Antoninus
Plus established the rule that each body of troops should draw its
recruits from the district where it was stationed. Henceforth the
previous possession of Roman citizenship was no longer required for
enlistment in the legions. The legionary was granted the privilege
of citizenship upon entering the service, the auxiliary soldier upon
being discharged (Seeck, Untergang der antiken Welt, I, 250).
II. Allusions in the New Testament to the Roman
Military Establishment.
Such references relate chiefly to the bodies of troops which were
stationed in Judea. Agrippa I left a military establishment of one
ala and five cohorts at his death in 44 AD (Josephus, Ant, XIX, ix,
2; BJ, III, iv, 2), which he had doubtless received from the earlier
Roman administration. These divisions were composed of local
recruits, chiefly Samaritans (Hirschfeld, Verwaltungsbeamte, 395;
Mommsen, Hermes, XIX, 217, note 1).
The Ala I gemina Sebastenorum was stationed at Caesarea (Josephus,
Ant, XX, 122; BJ, II, xii, 5; CIL, VIII, 9359).
1. Augustan Band:
Julius, the centurion to whom Paul and other prisoners were
delivered to be escorted to Rome (Acts 27:1), belonged to one of the
five cohorts which was stationed at or near Caesarea. This Speira
Sebaste (Westcott-Hort), "Augustus' Band" (the Revised Version
(British and American) "Augustan band"; the Revised Version, margin
"cohort"), was probably the same body of troops which is mentioned
in inscriptions as Cohors I Augusta (CIL, Supp, 6687) and Speira
Augouste (Lebas-Waddington 2112). Its official title may have been
Cohors Augusta Sebastenorum (GVN). It will be observed that all
divisions of the Roman army were divided into companies of about 100
men, each of which, in the infantry, was commanded by a centurion,
in the cavalry, by a decurion.
2. Italian Band:
There was another cohort in Caesarea, the "Italian band" (Cohors
Italica, Vulgate) of which Cornelius was centurion (Acts 10:1: ek
speires tes kaloumenes Italikes). The cohortes Italicae (civium
Romanorum) were made up of Roman citizens (Marquardt, Romische
Staatsverwaltung, II, 467).
3. Praetorian Guard:
One of the five cohorts was stationed in Jerusalem (Mt 27:27; Mk
15:16), the "chief captain" of which was Claudius Lysias. His title,
chiliarchos in the Greek (Acts 23:10,15,17,19,22,26; 24:7 the King
James Version), meaning "leader of a thousand men" (tribunus,
Vulgate), indicates that this body of soldiers was a cohors miliaria.
Claudius Lysias sent Paul to Felix at Caesarea under escort of 200
soldiers, 70 horsemen, and 200 spearmen (Acts 23:23). The latter (dexiolaboi,
Westcott and Hort, The New Testament in Greek) are thought to have
been a party of provincial militia. Several centurions of the cohort
at Jerusalem appear during the riot and subsequent rescue and arrest
of Paul (Acts 21:32; 22:25,26; 23:17,23). The cohortes miliariae (of
1,000 men) contained ten centurions. A centurion, doubtless of the
same cohort, was in charge of the execution of the Saviour (Mt
27:54; Mk 15:39,44,45; Lk 23:47). It was customary for centurions to
be entrusted with the execution of capital penalties (Tacitus Ann.
i.6; xvi.9; xvi.15; Hist. ii.85).
The the King James Version contains the passage in Acts 28:16: "The
centurion delivered the prisoners to the captain of the guard" (stratopedarches),
which the Revised Version (British and American) omits. It has
commonly been held that the expression stratopedarches was
equivalent to praetorian prefect (praefectus praetorius), and that
the employment of the word in the singular was proof that Paul
arrived in Rome within the period 51-62 AD when Sex. Afranius Burrus
was sole praetorian prefect. Mommsen (Sitzungsberichte der Berliner
Akademie (1895), 491-503) believes that the sentence in question
embodies an ancient tradition, but that the term stratopedarches
could not mean praefectus praetorius, which is never rendered in
this way in Greek. He suggests that it stands for princeps castrorum
peregrinorum, who was a centurion in command of the frumentarii at
Rome. These were detachments of legionary soldiers who took rank as
principales. They served as military couriers between the capital
and provinces, political spies, and an imperial police. It was
probably customary, at least when the tradition under discussion
arose, for the frumentarii to take charge of persons who were sent
to Rome for trial (Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, II,
491-94). [ISBE]
Highways of the Roman Empire
The Destruction of Jerusalem under Titus
The Destruction of Jerusalem. Vespasian committed the care of the war against the Jews to his son Titus ; for after the ascension of our Saviour, the Jews, in addition to their wickedness against him, were now incessantly plotting mischief against his apostles. First they slew Stephen by stoning him, next James, who first obtained the episcopal seat at Jerusalem, after the ascension of our Saviour. . . . But the rest of the apostles they harassed in many ways with a view to destroying them, and they drove them from the land of Judea. These apostles accordingly went to preach the gospel to all nations, relying upon the aid of Christ, when he said, " Go and teach all nations in my name." The whole body of the church at Jerusalem, however,— when commanded by a divine revelation given to men of approved piety there before the war, — removed from the city, and dwelt at a certain town called Pella beyond the Jordan. The Jews formed their line close under their walls, whence if successful they might venture to advance, and where if repulsed they had a refuge at hand. . . . The Romans then began to prepare for an assault. It seemed beneath them to await the result of famine. . . . But the commanding situation of the city the Jews had strengthened by enormous works which would have been a thorough defense even for level ground. Two hills of great height they fenced in with walls skillfully bent inward in such a manner that the flank of an assailant was exposed to missiles. The work ended in a precipice ; the towers they had raised to a height of sixty feet where the hill lent its aid to the fortification ; where the ground fell, they were a hundred and twenty feet high. These towers presented a marvelous appearance, and to a distant spectator seemed to be of uniform height. There had been prodigies, which this nation, prone to superstition but hating all religious rites, did not deem it lawful to expiate by offerings and sacrifice. They had seen hosts joining battle in the skies, the fiery gleam of arms, the temple illuminated by a sudden radiance from the clouds. The doors of the inner shrine suddenly opened, and a voice of more than mortal tone was heard to cry that the Gods were going away. At the same instant there was a mighty stir as of departure. A few put a fearful meaning on these events, but in most people was a firm persuasion that the ancient records of their priests contained a prediction that at this very time the East was to grow powerful, and rulers from Judea were to acquire universal empire. These mysterious prophecies had pointed to Vespasian and Titus ; but the common people, with the usual blindness of ambition, had interpreted these mighty omens in their own favor, and could not be brought even by disasters to believe the truth. In computing the whole number of the slain, the historian says, that eleven hundred thousand perished by famine, and that the rest, including factions and robbers, mutually informing against each other after the capture, were put to death. Of the young men the tallest and those distinguished for beauty were kept for the triumph. Of the remaining multitude all above seventeen were sent as prisoners to labor in the mines of Egypt. Great numbers, however, were distributed among the provinces, to be destroyed by the sword or by wild beasts in the theatres. Those under seventeen were carried away to be sold as slaves. In the last named class alone were as many as ninety thousand. Vespasian died on the eighth of the calends of July at the age of sixty-nine years. [Story of Rome]
The First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), sometimes called The Great Revolt (Hebrew: המרד הגדול, ha-Mered Ha-Gadol), was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews of Judaea Province (Iudaea), against the Roman Empire. The second was the Kitos War in 115–117 CE; the third was Bar Kokhba's revolt of 132–135 CE). The Great Revolt began in the year 66 CE, initially due to Greek and Jewish religious tensions, but later escalated due to anti-taxation protests and attacks upon Roman citizens.[2] The Roman military garrison of Judaea was quickly overrun by rebels and the pro-Roman king Agrippa II fled Jerusalem, together with Roman officials to Galilee. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, brought the Syrian army, based on XII Fulminata, reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order and quell the revolt. The legion, however, was ambushed and defeated by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon, a result that shocked the Roman leadership. The Roman command of the revolt's suppression was then handed to general Vespasian and his son Titus, who assembled four legions and began cleansing the country, starting with Galilee, in the year 67 CE. The revolt ended when legions under Titus besieged and destroyed the center of rebel resistance in Jerusalem in the year 70 CE, and defeated the remaining Jewish strongholds later on. [Wikipedia]
The Fall of Jerusalem. The siege of Jerusalem, the capital city, had begun early in the war, but had turned into a stalemate. Unable to breach the city's defences, the Roman armies established a permanent camp just outside the city, digging a trench around the circumference of its walls and building a wall as high as the city walls themselves around Jerusalem. Anyone caught in the trench attempting to flee the city would be captured, crucified, and placed in lines on top of the dirt wall facing into Jerusalem. The two Zealot leaders, John of Gischala and Simon Bar Giora, only ceased hostilities and joined forces to defend the city when the Romans began to construct ramparts for the siege. Those attempting to escape the city were crucified, with as many as five hundred crucifixions occurring in a day. Titus Flavius, Vespasian's son, led the final assault and siege of Jerusalem. During the infighting inside the city walls, a stockpiled supply of dry food was intentionally burned by Sicarii to induce the defenders to fight against the siege instead of negotiating peace; as a result many city dwellers and soldiers died of starvation during the siege. Zealots under Eleazar ben Simon held the Temple, Sicarii led by Simon Bar Giora held the upper city. Titus eventually wiped out the last remnants of Jewish resistance. By the summer of 70, the Romans had breached the walls of Jerusalem, ransacking and burning nearly the entire city. The Romans began by attacking the weakest spot: the third wall. It was built shortly before the siege so it did not have as much time invested in its protection. They succeeded towards the end of May and shortly afterwards broke through the more important second wall. The Second Temple (the renovated Herod's Temple) was destroyed on Tisha B'Av (29 or 30 July 70). Tacitus, a historian of the time, notes that those who were besieged in Jerusalem amounted to no fewer than six hundred thousand, that men and women alike and every age engaged in armed resistance, everyone who could pick up a weapon did, both sexes showed equal determination, preferring death to a life that involved expulsion from their country. All three walls were destroyed and in turn so was the Temple, some of whose overturned stones and their place of impact can still be seen. John of Giscala surrendered at Agrippa II's fortress of Jotapata and was sentenced to life imprisonment. The famous Arch of Titus still stands in Rome: it depicts Roman legionaries carrying the Temple of Jerusalem's treasuries, including the Menorah, during Titus's triumphal procession in Rome... The defeat of the Jewish revolt altered the Jewish diaspora, as many of the Jewish rebels were scattered or sold into slavery. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, a sizeable portion of these were at Jewish hands and due to illnesses brought about by hunger. "A pestilential destruction upon them, and soon afterward such a famine, as destroyed them more suddenly." 97,000 were captured and enslaved and many others fled to areas around the Mediterranean. The Jewish Encyclopedia article on the Hebrew Alphabet states: "Not until the revolts against Nero and against Hadrian did the Jews return to the use of the old Hebrew script on their coins, which they did from motives similar to those which had governed them two or three centuries previously; both times, it is true, only for a brief period." Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, claiming that he had "lent his arms to God". [Wikipedia]
Josephus Describes the Siege. "Now as soon as the army had no more people to slay or to plunder, because there remained none to be the objects of their fury (for they would not have spared any, had there remained any other work to be done), [Titus] Caesar gave orders that they should now demolish the entire city and Temple, but should leave as many of the towers standing as they were of the greatest eminence; that is, Phasaelus, and Hippicus, and Mariamne; and so much of the wall enclosed the city on the west side. This wall was spared, in order to afford a camp for such as were to lie in garrison [in the Upper City], as were the towers [the three forts] also spared, in order to demonstrate to posterity what kind of city it was, and how well fortified, which the Roman valor had subdued; but for all the rest of the wall [surrounding Jerusalem], it was so thoroughly laid even with the ground by those that dug it up to the foundation, that there was left nothing to make those that came thither believe it [Jerusalem] had ever been inhabited. This was the end which Jerusalem came to by the madness of those that were for innovations; a city otherwise of great magnificence, and of mighty fame among all mankind... And truly, the very view itself was a melancholy thing; for those places which were adorned with trees and pleasant gardens, were now become desolate country every way, and its trees were all cut down. Nor could any foreigner that had formerly seen Judaea and the most beautiful suburbs of the city, and now saw it as a desert, but lament and mourn sadly at so great a change. For the war had laid all signs of beauty quite waste. Nor had anyone who had known the place before, had come on a sudden to it now, would he have known it again. But though he [a foreigner] were at the city itself, yet would he have inquired for it... The slaughter within was even more dreadful than the spectacle from without. Men and women, old and young, insurgents and priests, those who fought and those who entreated mercy, were hewn down in indiscriminate carnage. The number of the slain exceeded that of the slayers. The legionaries had to clamber over heaps of dead to carry on the work of extermination." [Josephus]
Vespasian coin with 'Judea Capta' on the
back, IVDEA CAPTA, "Judaea conquered". The coin was Issued
in 71 AD to celebrate the victory of the Romans in the Jewish
Revolt.
Judaea Capta coins were originally issued by the Roman Emperor Vespasian to commemorate the capture of Judaea and the destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem by his son Titus in 70 AD during the First Jewish Revolt.
Josephus. The main account of the revolt comes from Josephus, the former Jewish commander of Galilee who, after capture by the Romans after the Siege of Yodfat, attempted to end the rebellion by negotiating with the Judeans on Titus's behalf. Josephus and Titus became close friends, and later Josephus was granted Roman citizenship and a pension. He never returned to his homeland after the fall of Jerusalem, living in Rome as a historian under the patronage of Vespasian and Titus. He wrote two works, The Jewish War (c. 75) and Jewish Antiquities (c. 94) which, on occasion, are contradictory. These are the only surviving source materials containing information on specific events occurring during the fighting. But the material has been questioned because of claims that cannot be verified by secondary sources and because of Josephus' potential bias as a client of the Romans and defender of the Roman cause. Only since the discovery of the Dead Sea scrolls has some solid confirmation been given to the events he describes. [Wikipedia]
Painting of the horrors of the
Destruction of the Jerusalem Temple on the ninth of Av in 70 AD.
The Word "Legion" is Mentioned in the Bible
Mark 5:15 -
And they come to Jesus, and see him that was possessed with the
devil, and had the legion, sitting, and clothed, and in his right
mind: and they were afraid.
Luke 8:30 -
And Jesus asked him, saying, What is thy name? And he said, Legion:
because many devils were entered into him.
Mark 5:9 -
And he asked him, What [is] thy name? And he answered, saying, My
name [is] Legion: for we are many.
Matthew 26:53 - Thinkest thou that I cannot now pray to my Father, and he shall presently give me more than twelve legions of angels?
The Word "Caesar"
in the Bible
(Note: It was not always Tiberius because he died in 37 A.D.)
Luke 3:1 - Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor of Judaea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of Ituraea and of the region of Trachonitis, and Lysanias the tetrarch of Abilene.
Matthew 22:21 - They
say unto him, Caesar's. Then saith he unto them,
Render therefore unto Caesar the things which are
Caesar's; and unto God the things that are God's.
Luke 3:1
- Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar,
Pontius Pilate being governor of Judaea, and Herod being tetrarch of
Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of Ituraea and of the
region of Trachonitis, and Lysanias the tetrarch of Abilene,
John 19:15
- But they cried out, Away with [him], away with [him], crucify him.
Pilate saith unto them, Shall I crucify your King? The chief priests
answered, We have no king but Caesar.
John 19:12
- And from thenceforth Pilate sought to release him: but the Jews
cried out, saying, If thou let this man go, thou art not
Caesar's friend: whosoever maketh himself a king speaketh
against Caesar.
Luke 20:25
- And he said unto them, Render therefore unto Caesar
the things which be Caesar's, and unto God the things
which be God's.
Mark 12:14
- And when they were come, they say unto him, Master, we know that
thou art true, and carest for no man: for thou regardest not the
person of men, but teachest the way of God in truth: Is it lawful to
give tribute to Caesar, or not?
Mark 12:17
- And Jesus answering said unto them, Render to Caesar
the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things
that are God's. And they marvelled at him.
Acts 27:24
- Saying, Fear not, Paul; thou must be brought before Caesar:
and, lo, God hath given thee all them that sail with thee.
Luke 23:2
- And they began to accuse him, saying, We found this [fellow]
perverting the nation, and forbidding to give tribute to
Caesar, saying that he himself is Christ a King.
Acts 11:28
- And there stood up one of them named Agabus, and signified by the
Spirit that there should be great dearth throughout all the world:
which came to pass in the days of Claudius Caesar.
Acts 25:11
- For if I be an offender, or have committed any thing worthy of
death, I refuse not to die: but if there be none of these things
whereof these accuse me, no man may deliver me unto them. I appeal
unto Caesar.
Acts 25:21
- But when Paul had appealed to be reserved unto the hearing of
Augustus, I commanded him to be kept till I might send him to
Caesar.
Acts 17:7
- Whom Jason hath received: and these all do contrary to the decrees
of Caesar, saying that there is another king, [one]
Jesus.
Luke 2:1
- And it came to pass in those days, that there went out a decree
from Caesar Augustus, that all the world should be
taxed.
Acts 28:19
- But when the Jews spake against [it], I was constrained to appeal
unto Caesar; not that I had ought to accuse my nation
of.
Matthew
22:17 - Tell us therefore, What thinkest thou? Is it lawful
to give tribute unto Caesar, or not?
Acts 25:8
- While he answered for himself, Neither against the law of the
Jews, neither against the temple, nor yet against Caesar,
have I offended any thing at all.
Acts 26:32
- Then said Agrippa unto Festus, This man might have been set at
liberty, if he had not appealed unto Caesar.
Luke 20:22
- Is it lawful for us to give tribute unto Caesar, or
no?
Acts 25:12
- Then Festus, when he had conferred with the council, answered,
Hast thou appealed unto Caesar? unto Caesar
shalt thou go.
Some Scriptures mentioning the word "Rome"
Acts 23:11
- And the night following the Lord stood by him, and said, Be of
good cheer, Paul: for as thou hast testified of me in Jerusalem, so
must thou bear witness also at Rome.
2 Timothy
4:22 - The Lord Jesus Christ [be] with thy spirit. Grace
[be] with you. Amen. <[The second [epistle] unto Timotheus, ordained
the first bishop of the church of the Ephesians, was written from
Rome, when Paul was brought before Nero the second
time.]>
Acts 18:2
- And found a certain Jew named Aquila, born in Pontus, lately come
from Italy, with his wife Priscilla; (because that Claudius had
commanded all Jews to depart from Rome:) and came unto
them.
Colossians 4:18 - The salutation by the hand of me Paul.
Remember my bonds. Grace [be] with you. Amen. <[Written from
Rome to Colossians by Tychicus and Onesimus.]>
Ephesians
6:24 - Grace [be] with all them that love our Lord Jesus
Christ in sincerity. Amen. <[To [the] Ephesians written from
Rome, by Tychicus.]>
Philemon
1:25 - The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ [be] with your
spirit. Amen. <[Written from Rome to Philemon, by
Onesimus a servant.]>
Acts 2:10
- Phrygia, and Pamphylia, in Egypt, and in the parts of Libya about
Cyrene, and strangers of Rome, Jews and proselytes,
Acts 19:21
- After these things were ended, Paul purposed in the spirit, when
he had passed through Macedonia and Achaia, to go to Jerusalem,
saying, After I have been there, I must also see Rome.
Acts 28:16
- And when we came to Rome, the centurion delivered
the prisoners to the captain of the guard: but Paul was suffered to
dwell by himself with a soldier that kept him.
Romans 1:7
- To all that be in Rome, beloved of God, called [to
be] saints: Grace to you and peace from God our Father, and the Lord
Jesus Christ.
Galatians
6:18 - Brethren, the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ [be]
with your spirit. Amen. <[To [the] Galatians written from Rome.]>
Philippians 4:23 - The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ [be]
with you all. Amen. <[To [the] Philippians written from Rome,
by Epaphroditus.]>
Acts 28:14
- Where we found brethren, and were desired to tarry with them seven
days: and so we went toward Rome.
Romans 1:15
- So, as much as in me is, I am ready to preach the gospel to you
that are at Rome also.
2 Timothy
1:17 - But, when he was in Rome, he sought me
out very diligently, and found [me].
Daniel 2:40 - "And the fourth kingdom shall be strong as iron: forasmuch as iron breaketh in pieces and subdueth all [things]: and as iron that breaketh all these, shall it break in pieces and bruise."
Acts 23:11 - And the night following the Lord stood by him, and said, Be of good cheer, Paul: for as thou hast testified of me in Jerusalem, so must thou bear witness also at Rome.
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Book 3 - Julius Caesar's War Commentaries
Map of Ancient Israel - Roman Provincial Organization
Ancient Roman Eagle - Biblical Archaeology in Rome
CENTURION in the Bible Encyclopedia - ISBE (Free Bible)
A Harmony of the Life of Jesus - Herd of Many Swine Mat 8:28-33
Pannonia - Clickable Map of the Roman Empire - First Century AD
Encarta Encyclopedia - The Empire Under Augustus
The
History of Rome - Part One 743 - 136 B.C.
More Images of Rome's Emperors
Also see Roman Emperors - Photos, information , coins